Smacking children can lead to future behavioural problems and worse exam results, according to new research.
Analysis by University College London found those subjected to physical punishment aged three, five, and seven were more likely not to pass their GCSEs – including in English and maths – than those who didn't suffer such treatment.
The findings also suggested children who had experienced any physical punishment between the ages of three and seven were around 35% more likely to have hit, pushed, or shoved someone else by age 14.
Study co-author Becca Lacey said it was clear "that physically punishing a child has no benefits".
"Instead, it is associated with a range of shorter and longer-term detrimental outcomes for those children, including increased risks of poorer educational attainment and adolescent antisocial behaviours," she said.
The research was published amid growing calls for smacking to be outlawed across the UK. England's Children Act currently makes allowances where it is a "reasonable punishment", and a similar law exists in Northern Ireland.
What constitutes "reasonable punishment" is ruled by a judge on a case-by-case basis.
Scotland and Wales have already banned smacking.
Read more: What are the laws on smacking in the UK?
Dr Anja Heilmann, lead author on the new report, said the failure by politicians in England and Northern Ireland to take action was a "huge missed opportunity".
"Children have the right to be brought up free from all forms of violence," she said.
"It cannot be right that, in 2026, children in England and Northern Ireland have less legal protection from physical harm than adults."
All four of the UK's children's commissioners have previously jointly called for a wholesale smacking ban, describing the current situation as "outdated and morally repugnant".
A proposal put forward to remove the "reasonable punishment" defence in Northern Ireland was dropped from new legislation earlier this month.
A Department for Education spokesperson said there were "no plans at this stage" to ban smacking in England.
The analysis – supported by the NSPCC – was based on data from the Millennium Cohort Study, following the lives of around 19,000 children who were born between 2000 and 2002, and the National Pupil Database for pupils in England.
(c) Sky News 2026: Smacking leads to worse exam results, research finds
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